Crop diversity and susceptibility of crop fields to elephant raids in eastern Okavango Panhandle, northern Botswana.

Elephants frequently raid crops within their ranges in Africa and Asia. These raids can greatly impact agricultural productivity and food security for farmers. Therefore, there is a need to explore cost-effective measures that would reduce the susceptibility of crops and agricultural fields to elephant raiding, and further promote sustainable human-elephant coexistence. Previous studies have examined the susceptibility of crop fields to elephant raids using field characteristics such as field size and proximity to water sources. However, there are limited studies investigating how different crop types, individually and in their combinations, influence crop susceptibility to elephant raiding. This study utilized data collected from crop fields raided by the African savanna elephant ( Loxodonta africana ) between 2008 and 2018 in the eastern Okavango Panhandle, northern Botswana. Data on crops grown, number of crop-raiding incidences for each crop, and elephant raiding incidences were recorded for each field assessed. Incidence risks (IR) and field risk value (RV) were computed using an adaptive epidemiological approach. The results showed that elephant raiding incidents varied significantly amongst crop types over space and time ( p  < .0001). Cereal crops (millet: Eleusine conaracana , maize: Zea mays ) incurred a higher number of crop-raiding incidents compared with leguminous crops (cowpea: Vigna unguiculata ; groundnut: Arachis hypogea ). Field RVs significantly varied depending on which crop was present in the field. There was a significant negative correlation between the number of crop types and the susceptibility of the field to raiding ( r  = -0.680, p  < .0001). Our results suggest that the susceptibility of the fields to elephant raids could be minimized by selecting crop types and combinations less susceptible to elephant damage, thus enhancing food security for local subsistence farmers.