Hybrid and composite scaffolds based on extracellular matrices for cartilage tissue engineering.

Cartilage consists of chondrocytes and a special extracellular matrix (ECM) having unique biochemical, biophysical, and biomechanical properties that play a critical role in the proliferation and differentiation of cells inherent to cartilage functions. Cartilage tissue engineering requires recreating these micro environmental physicochemical conditions to lead to chondrocytes differentiation from stem cells. ECM-derived hybrid scaffolds based on chondroitin sulphate, hyaluronic acid, collagen, and cartilage ECM analogs provide environments conducive to stem-cell proliferation. In this review, we describe hybrid scaffolds based on these four cartilage ECM derivatives; we also categorize these scaffolds based on the methods used for their preparation. The use of hybrid scaffolds is increasing in cartilage tissue engineering to address the complexity of cartilage tissue. Thus, a comprehensive review on the topic should be a useful guide for future research.