Aquatic life criteria of hydrothermal liquefaction wastewater via ecotoxicity test and modeling.

Wastewater resulting from hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL-AP) of biowaste is gaining attention as an emerging hazardous material. However, there is a lack of specific and systematic ecotoxicity studies on HTL-AP. This study addresses this gap by conducting acute toxicity tests on HTL-AP using typical aquatic species and integrating these results with predicted toxicity values from interspecies correlation estimation models to establish aquatic life criteria. HTL-AP exhibited significant toxicity with LC50 of 956.12-3645.4 mg/L, but demonstrated moderate toxicity compared to common freshwater pollutants like commercial microbicides, personal care products, and insect repellents. The resulting hazardous concentration for 5 % of species (HC5 ), the criterion maximum concentration, and the short-term water quality criteria for aquatic were 506.0, 253.0, and 168.7 mg/L, respectively. Notably, certain organisms like Misgurnus anguillicaudatus and Cipangopaludina chinensis showed high tolerance to HTL-AP, likely due to their metabolic capabilities on HTL-AP components. The significant decrease in HC5 values for some HTL-AP substances compared to pure compounds could indicate the synergistic inhibition effects among HTL-AP compositions. Furthermore, according to the established criteria, HTL-AP required significantly less diluted water (13 t) than carbendazim (1009 t) to achieve biosafety, indicating a safer release. This research establishes a preliminary water quality criterion for HTL-AP, offering a valuable reference for risk assessment and prediction in the utilization of HTL-AP within environmental contexts.