Differential toxicity of functionalized polystyrene microplastics to clams (Meretrix meretrix) at three key development stages of life history.

Little knowledge is available on impact of microplastics (MPs) on the bivalve larvae at different developmental stages throughout their life history, especially for metamorphic stage. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the toxic responses of carboxylated (PS-COOH) and amino (PS-NH2 ) polystyrene MPs on the developing clam larvae at three key life stages, i.e., fertilized eggs, D-veliger larvae, and umbo larvae. PS-COOH and PS-NH2 significantly decreased the hatching rates by 5.79-39.5% and developmental rates by 4.78-7.86% of the clam larvae relative to the unexposed clam larvae. The toxicity of MPs followed the order: hatching stage > metamorphosis > D-veliger larvae stage, showing stage-dependent toxic effects. Moreover, PS-NH2 with a smaller hydrodynamic diameter showed a greater toxicity to the developing larvae compared to PS-COOH. Our study highlighted the stage-dependent toxic effects of MPs on the developing clam larvae, thus posing ecological risks to population succession of marine bivalves and aquatic ecosystems.