Higher taxonomic relationships among extant mammals based on morphology, with selected comparisons of results from molecular data.

Until a few decades ago, phylogenetic relationships among placental orders were ambiguous and usually depicted to radiate as an unresolved "bush." Resolution of this bush by various workers has been progressing slowly, but with promising results corroborated by nondental, dental, and molecular characters. In this study we continue to seek resolution. A total of 258 nondental and 2 dental characters was analyzed by PAUP and MacClade on 39 vertebrate taxa (3 reptiles, 1 nonmammalian therapsid, and 35 mammals; 20 of the mammals are extant and 15 are extinct) to study higher taxonomic relationships with emphasis on Placentalia (Eutheria). About two-thirds of the characters are osteological, the rest concern soft tissues, including myological but excluding molecular characters (most are our data, the rest are from the literature). Cladistic analysis included all 39 taxa (fossil taxa help to evaluate polarities of characters) and all characters were given equal weight. Extant Mammalia are divided into Prototheria and Theria, the latter into Marsupialia and Placentalia. Placentalia comprises Xenarthra and Epitheria. Within Epitheria, Lipotyphla and Preptotheria (emended) are sister-taxa. Preptotherian taxa group into: ungulate-related taxa and various nonungulates. The former include Carnivora, Pholidota, Tubulidentata, Artiodactyla, Cetacea, Perissodactyla, Hyracoidea, Proboscidea, and Sirenia. A possible association to embrace Lagomorpha, Rodentia, Macroscelidea, Scandentia, Primates, Chiroptera, and Dermoptera is suggested. Significant differences between our findings and those of recent investigators include the dissociation of Pholidota from Xenarthra and the plesiomorphous position of Lipotyphla within Epitheria. Congruence between morphological and molecular results is closer than previously reported.