Fabrication, characterization, and potential applications of re-assembled casein micelles.

Re-assembled casein micelles ( r CMs), were formulated in the 1970s as a model system to understand native casein micelles ( n CMs) in milk. These early works allowed an understanding of the critical factors involved in the formation of r CMs, such as minerals (citrate, phosphate, and calcium), casein type (αs -, β-, and κ-casein) and the extent of their phosphorylation. r CMs were also used to understand the effect of treatments such as ethanol, high hydrostatic pressure and heating on the stability and integrity of the micelles. More recently, the applications of r CMs have been investigated, these include their use as a nanocarrier of bioactive molecules and as electrode-bound substrates to monitor chymosin activity by electrochemistry, to cite a few. Moreover, the potential to use r CMs in both food and non-food applications remains to be fully exploited. The advantage of choosing r CMs over n CMs as an encapsulant and a lucrative food ingredient is due to their more efficient preparation and being free from impurities. In this review, we report on the formulation of r CMs, their physico-chemical properties and their behavior under different physico-chemical treatments, along with the applications and challenges of r CMs in food systems and their industrial production as a dairy ingredient.