Effects of MgO, ZnO, SrO, and SiO 2 in tricalcium phosphate scaffolds on in vitro gene expression and in vivo osteogenesis.

β‑tricalcium phosphate (β‑TCP) is a versatile bioceramic for its use in many orthopedic and dental applications due to its excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability. Recently, the addition of additives to β‑TCP has been proven to improve bone repair and regeneration, however, the underlying mechanism of enhanced bone regeneration is still unknown. In this study, strontium oxide (SrO), silica (SiO2 ), magnesia (MgO), and zinc oxide (ZnO) were added to β‑TCP for dense discs fabrication followed by in vitro evaluation using a preosteoblast cell line. Cell viability and gene expression were analyzed at day 3 and day 9 during the cell culture. MgO and SiO2 were found to significantly enhance and expedite osteoblastic differentiation. A potential mechanism was introduced to explain the additive induced osteoblastic differentiation. In addition, in vivo characterizations showed that porous 3D printed MgO-SiO2 -TCP scaffolds significantly improved new bone formation after 16 weeks of implantation. This study shows beneficial effects of additives on osteoblastic viability and differentiation in vitro as well as osteogenesis in vivo, which is crucial towards the development of bone tissue engineering scaffolds.