Veterinary Clinics of North America. Exotic Animal Practice

This article provides an overview of the development of exotic animal medicine in Latin America (LATAM), highlighting its historical evolution, current evidence, and future considerations. The practice of exotic animal medicine began in the 1970s and 1980s. The lack of knowledge and scientific resources led to the extrapolation of veterinary care for exotic species from human and companion animal medicine. However, from the 21st century onwards, globalization and collaboration among veterinary professionals have allowed greater access to knowledge and techniques for the treatment of exotic species in LATAM...

The way exotic animals are viewed around the world differ. These views and attitudes are constantly evolving and may eventually converge in the way that cats and dogs are now widely accepted as part of most societies around the world. The choice and popularity of exotic animal species as pets is a complex interaction of many different factors, including legislation and availability. Media representation may be a factor too, but there has been very little evidence to demonstrate this. Regardless of the region, exotic animal practice appears to be an area of veterinary practice that is on the rise...

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Proper nutrition and feeding management are the foundation of good health. Nutrition is one area the veterinary health care team can affect. Optimal feeding practices of companion birds are constantly being evaluated. It is critical that health care team members understand the key nutritional factors in avian nutrition, as this allows for the proper recommendation and education of nutrition to bird owners. Depending on the species, today's pet birds may live decades, so it is imperative that proper nutrition habits be adopted by the owner for their avian pet...

Rodents represent a diverse group that shares commonalities in approaches to dietary management. Nutritional management of companion rodents must diverge from laboratory animal management, and must also consider the importance of a healthy gastrointestinal microbiome. Published requirements must be applied appropriately to species, life stage, and body condition management. Common nutritional health concerns include digestive-tract dysbiosis, gastrointestinal stasis, dental malocclusion, obesity, and hypervitaminosis D...

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Neonatal and juvenile raptors may differ from adults in their husbandry, disease predispositions, and medical therapies. There are differences between captive bred juveniles and those presented for rehabilitation to the wild, which must be taken into consideration for successful long-term outcomes. In captive settings, many metabolic and infectious diseases may be linked to problems with diet. The successful rehabilitation and release of wild raptor chicks requires special precautions beyond avoiding imprinting...

Neonatal Anseriformes require specialized care for successful development including access to clean swimming water and food presentation that stimulates natural feeding behavior. Knowledge of natural history is essential for successful rearing. Lightweight and waterproof materials can be used for corrective splinting of many developmental disorders that allow birds to ambulate normally and swim. Captivity-associated lesions can be minimized through proper husbandry and hygiene. Anseriformes are susceptible to a variety of bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic diseases, some of which are reportable to state health agencies...

The discovery of epigenetics and the interaction between genes and the environment have moved our understanding of how animal behavior develops from gestation to adulthood, and even throughout generations, to a new level. Studying the natural biology of exotic pets is key to providing them with a rich social and physical environment that will encourage species-specific behaviors. Combining parent-raising with appropriately timed human handling is likely to result in individuals with more resilience to stress...

This article reviews the development, hand-rearing, feeding, housing, and social behavior of common pet rodent species (rats, mice, hamsters, gerbils, guinea pigs, chinchillas, and degus). In addition, common gastrointestinal, respiratory, cardiovascular, dermatologic, musculoskeletal, neurologic, and ophthalmic disorders in pediatric pet rodents are reviewed. Preventative care and indications for spaying and neutering are discussed.

African pygmy hedgehogs have become a popular pet and are commonly available through breeders and pet stores. Responsible breeding, proper husbandry, and close monitoring of the dam and pups are important for neonatal health. The risk of abandonment or cannibalism is high in this species especially in stressed dams unfamiliar to frequent handling. Hand-rearing hedgehog pups is difficult and cross-fostering is a preferable alternative for abandoned pups when possible. If intervention becomes necessary, heat support, frequent feedings, and physical stimulation to eliminate must be provided...

Macropods belong to the marsupial family Macropodidae, which includes animals such as kangaroos and wallabies. Macropod offspring are highly altricial at birth and require specialized care and environmental conditions for healthy development. The care and management of pediatric macropods poses a challenge due to the unique physiology and reproductive strategy of macropods. In order to successfully work with pediatric macropods, clinical veterinarians should have knowledge of species-specific husbandry, normal postnatal development, and common medical conditions/treatments...

Sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps) are small nocturnal marsupials with a unique metabolism and reproductive strategy compared to other common exotic companion mammals. Although there are few reports on the pediatric diseases of sugar gliders, clinicians should be aware of the normal reproductive anatomy, physiology, and rearing of sugar gliders. By recognizing the signs of normal reproduction and joey development, clinicians can identify abnormalities quickly and provide appropriate intervention, as needed.

The health of hatchling, juvenile, and young adult reptiles continues to be plagued by historic nutritional deficiencies, old and emerging infectious diseases, and more recent phenotype-selective congenital abnormalities that impact welfare. Knowledge of mating seasonality, average egg counts, gestation times, and age and/or size for sexual maturity is necessary to help guide best practices for care of pediatric reptiles. Calcium, vitamin D3, and ultraviolet B (UVB) lighting recommendations vary in effectiveness amongst different species and can change with age...

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Injured, sick, and orphaned wildlife neonates arrive by the thousands to wildlife rehabilitation centers, veterinary hospitals, and wildlife hospitals in North America. With the ultimate goal of releasing them back into the wild, veterinarians need to know the ecology, biology, and specific problems encountered by the various species of wildlife.

Pigeons have been bred by humans for thousands of years as a source of food and feathers, as messengers, but also for their beauty, and more recently for sport. Pediatric medicine of pigeons has risen in importance given the interest at stake during international competitions. Young pigeons have a unique development and an increased sensitivity to both infectious and nutritional disorders compared with adults. Preventive medicine is of paramount importance and relies on measures targeting parents before breeding and chicks after hatching...

Ferrets are bred to be pets, utilized for hunting, and as laboratory models. Despite the fact that ferrets in some areas of the world are neutered by the breeder before entering the pet trade, the importance of pediatric management should not be overlooked. Pregnant, whelping, and lactating jills should be closely monitored and kept in a quiet, stress-free environment. Hand-rearing baby kits is very challenging due to their requirement for ferret milk. Minimizing maternal stress and disease can prevent the need to hand rear kits...

Pediatric exotic companion animal nutrition is a broad topic, spanning small mammals, reptiles, and birds. Little research has been performed focusing on the juvenile life stages of these species because they are largely acquired by clients at the young adult stage. The information that does exist has been compiled by wildlife rehabilitators, commercial breeders, and/or exotic captive breeding programs, such as those that exist in zoologic facilities. In this article, we discuss natural history, feeding strategies, energy requirements, digestive physiology and diet digestibility, and key nutrients of concern as factors for determining an appropriate diet for pediatric exotic species...

Rabbits encompass roles spanning from companion animals, wildlife species to laboratory animal models. Pediatric care of these species therefore may extend to various disciplines of veterinary medicine. Rabbits are born altricial but have a unique perinatal relationship between kit and doe with infrequent nursing. Nursing is immunologically protective to the kit and close contact with the doe allows for colonization of their gastrointestinal tract with bacterial flora. The most common diseases that pediatric rabbits are faced with are gastrointestinal in nature with orphaned and hand-reared rabbits at higher risk due to the aforementioned effects on their immune system...